When Computers Were Human Read online

  Smith claimed that the market encouraged people to specialize, to produce those goods that gained them the most profit. Butchers did not make shoes, nor did cobblers slaughter their own animals. This specialization was one part of a more general idea that Smith identified as the division of labor. “The greatest improvements in the productive powers of labour,” he wrote, “seem to have been the effects of the division of labour.” He claimed that there were three benefits to be gained from such division. First, it led to the “increase of dexterity in every particular workman.” Laborers could focus on a small number of tasks and thus gain skill and efficiency. Second, divided labor made workers more productive by reducing “the time which is commonly lost in passing from one species of work to another.” Finally, the division of labor encouraged workers to improve their tools, to invent “a great number of machines which facilitate and abridge labour, and enable one man to do the work of many.”4

  Later generations would explore Smith’s market principles and divided labor with the calculus of Isaac Newton. Smith was content to simply describe how his laws touched different aspects of economic behavior. He claimed that his ideas applied equally to manufacture and to “natural philosophy,” the term he used to describe scientific research. The “subdivision of employment in philosophy,” he wrote, “improves dexterity, and saves time.” Smith conceded that philosophers might not be motivated by the traditional economic forces of profit and loss, yet he argued that they desired to extract the greatest results from their limited resources, so that “more work is done upon the whole, and the quantity of science is considerably increased by it.”5 The work of Alexis Clairaut, Nicole-Reine Lepaute, and Joseph Lalande was an early example of this observation. Without the division of labor, Clairaut could not have completed the calculations before the comet’s reappearance and could not have devoted so much effort to checking the results.

  At the time that Adam Smith was writing The Wealth of Nations, the British Admiralty, the executive office of the English navy, was organizing a new computing office and taking a further step in the division of labor. The Admiralty created this office in order to produce a nautical almanac, a volume of tables that gave the position of the sun and the moon, the planets and the stars. The founder of this office was the new Astronomer Royal, Nevil Maskelyne (1732–1811). Maskelyne was the successor, twice removed, of Edmund Halley, the fifth scientist to oversee the Royal Observatory at Greenwich. This appointment was not purely a scientific honor, as it carried a practical responsibility for the country’s fleet of naval and merchant ships. Anyone who accepted the king’s warrant for astronomy was required to develop methods of celestial navigation, particularly techniques for the “finding out of the longitude of places.”6 As if to emphasize this charge, the Greenwich Observatory sat on the high bank of the River Thames in the midst of a royal estate. From his desk, Maskelyne could view the ocean traffic as it moved between the London docks and the open waters of the North Sea.

  The Nautical Almanac was the outgrowth of a competition between two methods for finding longitude, one computational and the other mechanical. The two methods were nearly identical and differed only on a single point: the means of determining the time at Greenwich. The time at Greenwich was important because it allowed a navigator to compare two observations of a single star. The first measurement would be taken by the navigator in the dim moments before dawn or in the dusky hour of twilight, when the thin line of the horizon was visible from the ship and at least a few bright stars could be seen in the violet sky. After determining the position of a star, the navigator would turn to a nautical almanac and find the position of the same star as it would be viewed at the identical moment from the observatory at Greenwich. The difference between these two positions, properly adjusted with a dozen steps of calculation, was the longitude of the ship.

  In the 1760s, there were two possible ways of determining the time at Greenwich, both with advantages and drawbacks. The simpler way used a mechanical clock set to the time at Greenwich. This solution was problematic, as no common clock could guarantee sufficient precision under shipboard conditions. The roll of the waves disrupted pendulums. Variations in heat and humidity caused springs to expand and contract. A good clock might lose or gain four minutes a day, enough time to allow the earth to spin a full degree in its rotation. In the middle latitudes, a four-minute error could translate into a deviation of fifty miles. A navigator relying on such a clock could easily calculate a longitude that placed his ship at a safe distance from the shore when, in fact, the vessel was about to strike coastal rocks. In the early 1760s, English inventors strove to develop a precision clock that could record the time accurately under shipboard conditions. Of the timekeeping devices presented to the British Admiralty, one created by John Harrison (1693–1776) was the most promising.7

  The second approach to determining the time at Greenwich used the moon as a timekeeper. This technique was known as the lunar distance method. The moon moves twelve degrees across the sky each night, passing neighboring stars as if they were marks on a watch dial. That motion is enough to allow a skilled navigator to compute the time at Greenwich with sufficient accuracy, though the calculations are admittedly lengthy and require a special table that predicts the moon’s position. The lunar distance method had been developed in the early eighteenth century but had been dismissed by most navigators because of the difficulties in predicting the position of the moon. Like the calculation of the perihelion for Halley’s comet, the prediction of lunar position required the solution of a three-body problem. In this case, the three-body system involved the moon, the earth, and the sun. An acceptable solution to this particular system appeared only in the late 1750s, when the German astronomer Tobias Mayer (1723–1762) published a detailed table of lunar positions.8 Astronomers praised Mayer’s work as “the most admirable masterpiece in theoretical astronomy,” and in 1761, the Connaissance des Temps published an article that showed how Mayer’s tables could be used in navigation.9

  In popular accounts of the competition between Harrison’s clock and the lunar distance method, Nevil Maskelyne has been portrayed as a villain, a powerful scientist who undercut a valid technology for personal reasons. His alleged villainy came when he was asked by the British Admiralty to compare Harrison’s clock with the lunar distance method. Some writers have charged that Maskelyne was a prejudiced evaluator of the two techniques because he had publicly stated his admiration of Mayer’s lunar tables before the trial began and was known to favor the techniques of astronomical calculation.10 His conclusions from a test voyage certainly confirmed his opinion that the lunar distance method was a practicable means of determining longitude, and he dismissed Harrison’s clock.11 From a modern perspective, precision clocks, now called chronometers, clearly provide the easiest way of determining the time at Greenwich, but such a conclusion may not have been so clear in the 1760s. The historian Mary Croarken has noted that Harrison’s clock was an immature technology and was “much too expensive to be taken to sea by the majority of [English] navigators.”12

  On the trial voyage from England to Barbados and back, Maskelyne had required four hours to make a single computation of longitude with the lunar distance method.13 “It is rather to be wished,” he wrote, “that such parts of the computations as conveniently can, were made previously at land by capable persons.”14 Those parts of the computations that could be done in advance took the form of a set of tables that gave the distance from the moon to easily recognizable stars in a simplified form. These tables needed to be prepared and published annually, as the position of the moon varied from year to year. With such tables, a navigator could compute the time at Greenwich with a handful of operations and determine a ship’s longitude with only thirty minutes of work.15 Maskelyne wanted to include these tables as part of a general nautical almanac, as such values could be used for purposes beyond the problem of finding the time at Greenwich. They could even be used to check the settings of a chronometer in
the middle of the ocean or guide a ship back to land should the chronometer fail.

  In February 1765, the British Admiralty approved Maskelyne’s plan for an almanac, gave him a staff of five computers, and told him to begin work on celestial tables for 1767. To all involved with the project, including Maskelyne and the members of the Admiralty, this assignment must have seemed quite reasonable. Under normal circumstances, the almanac staff would have to produce a new publication every year. Maskelyne had fully twenty-two months before the start of 1767, almost twice the time he should have needed, but the process of recruiting and training his computing staff proved to be more challenging than he had anticipated. He organized the computing staff as a cottage industry, a form of production that was still common in England, even though it was starting to be eclipsed by the factory. In cottage production, the workers labored in their own homes. Their materials, instructions, and often their tools were provided by the company or individual for whom they worked. In the clothing industry, cottage workers might receive carded wool and spin it into yarn. For the Nautical Almanac computers, Maskelyne provided paper, ink, and instructions that were called “computing plans.” Maskelyne wrote these plans on one side of a heavy sheet of folded stationery. The instructions, scrawled in a slightly disheveled hand, summarized each step of the calculation. Occasionally, he would illustrate the computations with a hasty sketch of an astronomical triangle. On the other side of the paper he drew a blank table, ready for the computer to complete.16

  The computers produced tables that tracked the motion of a planet or the sun, tables that were called ephemerides in the plural (or an ephemeris in the singular). Most of these ephemerides were double-computed, prepared by two independent computers working from the same plan. Each computer would send Maskelyne a version of the ephemeris. Maskelyne would forward the two ephemerides to a third computer, who had the title of comparator. The comparator would search the two ephemerides for discrepancies and correct the mistakes. The only tables that were not double-computed were those of lunar motion. These tables were divided in half. One computer would calculate the moon’s position at noon. The other would compute the position at midnight. The comparator would merge the two tables and make sure that the two sets of calculations were consistent.17

  Initially, Maskelyne assigned two computers to prepare the 1767 volume of the almanac. A third acted as the comparator, and the remaining two were put to work on the 1768 volume. From what we know of his staff, all of them came from the second tier of astronomical talent. Most commonly, they had demonstrated some skill at astronomy but lacked the resources or the connections to acquire one of the prestigious scientific appointments at Cambridge or Oxford. The first computer of the 1767 volume, William Wales (1734–1798), came from a poor family in the north of England. The second computer, Israel Lyons (1739–1775), was a Jew and was unwilling to make the profession of belief that might gain him a place at the church-centered universities. The comparator, Richard Dunthorne (1711–1775), had shown the greatest ability to advance himself as a scientist. He, too, was born to a lower-class family but had demonstrated his mathematical prowess by analyzing the motion of the moon. This work had given him a minor reputation as an astronomer and had connected him to a wealthy patron who provided Dunthorne with a regular income.18

  4a. Computing sheet of Nevil Maskelyne

  Whenever possible, Maskelyne attempted to reduce the amount of calculation by borrowing tables from other sources, such as the Connaissance des Temps. He also simplified some of the calculations by employing the method of interpolation. Interpolation expands a table by estimating intermediate values rather than by calculating these numbers from the original equations. It is a mathematical means of connecting the dots. The computers would link the moon’s position at noon to its location at midnight using a polynomial, a mathematical expression that is the sum of terms such as x, x2, and x3. With this polynomial, the computers estimated the moon’s location at three-hour intervals without having to calculate new values from Mayer’s tables.19

  4b. Computing instructions prepared by Nevil Maskelyne

  Even with Maskelyne’s attempts to minimize the workload, the 1767 almanac fell behind schedule. Wales and Lyons needed time to learn the new computing procedures and develop the skill that would get the work done most efficiently. By the spring of 1766, Maskelyne recognized that his two computers would not be able to finish their computations in time for publication the following fall. Both were engaged in at least one other job and could not devote extra time to completing the calculations. Lyons worked as a surveyor and did other work for the British Admiralty, while Wales was involved in a number of astronomical projects. Fortunately, Maskelyne had a reserve pool of labor, the two computers who were preparing the second issue of the almanac. He told this pair to put aside their calculations and assist Wales, Lyons, and Dunthorne with the first issue. Together, the five computers finished the tables in late fall. The 1767 issue of the almanac appeared only six days after the start of the year.20

  As the computers moved to the second and third almanacs, they were able to claim the first benefit that Smith had ascribed to divided labor, the increase in dexterity and speed. After three years of calculations, the almanac staff had completed all of the almanacs through the 1773 volume and were beginning the calculations for 1774. By 1780, they were creating tables six years in advance, and Maskelyne was able to reduce the number of computers from five to four.21

  The division of labor for Maskelyne’s first Nautical Almanac offered no innovation beyond the methods commonly applied in English commerce. The only difference between the computers and the carders and weavers of the cloth industry was the fact that the computers’ product, the ephemerides, could be folded into a neat packet and sent through the mails. A more radical approach to the division of labor was found at the French Bureau du Cadastre. The bureau, a civil mapping agency, was a product of the French Revolution and hence embraced notions about labor and organization that were far more radical than those employed by Maskelyne at the British Nautical Almanac. The bureau prepared maps for governance, taxation, and land transactions. Initially, it had no computing division beyond a few assistant surveyors. It assembled a staff of almost one hundred computers when it became involved with the standardization of weights and measures that produced the metric system.

  The metric system grew out of an attempt by the National Assembly to gain control of the French economy. In March of 1790, barely eight months after the storming of the Bastille prison, the National Assembly debated a proposal to discard “the incalculable variety in our weights and measures and their bizarre names” and adopt a unified measurement system based upon scientific principles.22 At that time, each region was free to establish its own set of measures. Local officials easily manipulated these measures to their own advantage in a number of ways. Commonly, they could keep a large measure to collect taxes of grain and produce but reserve smaller measures for the payment of their own debts.23

  The Académie des Sciences agreed to create the new system of weights and measures. They quickly stipulated several basic principles for the new system. They agreed that the standards of weight and length should be beyond the control of any political organization and that the units for area, volume, and even weight should be related to the unit for length. In one of their final discussions, the Académie stated that the new measures should form a decimal system. All units should be related through multiples of ten. For example, the meter, the standard measure of length, would be divided by ten to produce the decimeter, which in turn could be divided to produce the centimeter, the millimeter, and the micrometer. The liter, the gram, and the dyne, the standard units of volume, mass, and force, could also be divided or expanded in decimal multiples. The members of the Académie argued that this same principle should govern all standard units, including those that measured angles. Under their proposal, a right angle would no longer have 90 degrees. Instead, it would be split into one hundred
new units called grades.24

  The proposal for the decimal measurement of angles produced a major computational problem that led to the creation of a computing office at the Bureau du Cadastre. The principal users of angle measure, navigators and surveyors, did their work with sines, cosines, and other trigonometric functions. Without trigonometric tables prepared for the decimal grades, the new standard for angle measure would be unused. No surveyor or navigator, even one ardently committed to the revolutionary cause, would measure angles in grades if he had to convert his numbers into degrees in order to use a sine table. Openly or surreptitiously, they would measure their angles in degrees and use the trigonometric tables of the ancien régime to calculate their position on the globe or the area of a piece of land.

  The director of the Bureau du Cadastre was Gaspard Clair François Marie Riche de Prony (1755–1839), a civil engineer with the country’s elite Corps des Ponts et Chaussées, the Corps of Bridges and Highways. De Prony came from a family of “modest but ancient title” in the province of Beaujolais. His mathematical skill had brought him to the attention of the corps and gained him entrance to the corps’s preparatory school in Paris. He graduated at the top of his class from the school and proudly accepted the uniform of a corps officer, which came with royal fleur-de-lys buttons.25